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78 B.C.E. Death of Sulla, Pompey defeats revolt.
76 B.C.E. Alexander Janneus is killed in battle, his widow, Salome Alexandra rules Judea.
75 B.C.E. The Damascus Document is composed in Hebrew.
73 B.C.E. Roman army defeats Mithridates and captures Pontus. Spartacus leads a revolt of slaves and gladiators, Roman army crushes rebellion.
67 B.C.E. Aristobulus II defeats Hyrcanus II, rules Judea.
65 B.C.E. Romans under Pompey invade Seleucid Empire.
64 B.C.E. Pompey arrives in Damascus, annexes Syria to the Roman Empire and orders truce between the feuding brothers Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II. Pompey orders both to Damascus and appoints the weaker Hyrcanus as ruler of the Jews. Aristobulus retreats, surrenders north of Jericho. Pontus, Cilicia and Syria become Roman provinces, Armenia, Cappadocia, Galatia, Colchis become Roman clientelae.
63 B.C.E. Followers of Aristobulus control Temple Mount in Jerusalem and refuse to surrender to Pompey. Supporters of Hyrcanus control Upper City in Jerusalem and open gates to Pompey. Pompey captures Temple Mount on the Sabbath, 12,000 Jewish defenders killed. Pompey enters the Holy Place in the Temple and touches nothing and takes no treasures. Aristobulus II is exiled to Rome. Hyrcanus II is high priest in Jerusalem and ethnarch of the Jewish people. Antipater of Edom, the father of Herod, is the Roman administrator. Pompey annexes Judea to Rome. Roman Senate fails to approve reorganization of Eastern Provinces by Pompey.
60 B.C.E. First Triumvirate rules Rome without legal sanction and despite Senatorial opposition; Pompey, Caesar and Crassus.
59 B.C.E. Caesar’s consulate approves Pompey’s fixation of taxes of provincial populations. Caesar receives provinces of Gaul, Illyricum, Gallia Narbonensis for five years.
58 B.C.E. Caesar is governor of Gaul. Free grain distribution in Rome.
56 B.C.E. Conference of Luca renews Triumvirate.
55 B.C.E. Consulate of Pompey and Crassus, partition of provinices, Pompey receives Spain, Crassus Syria and Caesar Gaul. Caesar conquers northern Gaul, fails in invasion of Britain.
54 B.C.E. Britain pays tribute to Rome after second Roman invasion.
53 B.C.E. Crassus defeated and killed fighting Parthians.
52 B.C.E. To control anarchy in Rome, Pompey elected as Consul of Rome without colleagues. The Senate rejects Caesar’s proposal to discharge armies simultaneously and demands dissolution of Caesar’s army and his resignation. Caesar crushes revolt of Gauls.
51 B.C.E. Cleopatra VII and brother Ptolemy XIII rule Egypt. Caesar completes conquest of Gaul.
50 B.C.E. Political instability between Caesar and Pompey.
49 B.C.E. Caesar ordered to give up his command in Gaul by Roman Senate and Pompey is charged with defending the Republic against Caesar. Caesar returns to Italy with his veteran Legions and "crosses the river Rubicon," signaling his rejection of the Senate's demands. Pompey flees from Italy to Greece.
48 B.C.E. Caesar defeats Pompey in Greece, 20,000 supporters surrender, Pompey flees to Egypt. Caesar surrounded at Alexandria, the Great Library is burned.
47 B.C.E. Antipater of Edom is appointed the Roman procurator of Judea with Herod, his son, as governor of Galilee. Cleopatra of Egypt orders the murder of Pompey. Caesar conquers the enemies of Egypt and Cleopatra becomes mistress to Caesar.
46 B.C.E. Caesar, with Cleopatra, returns to Rome, and is appointed dictator for ten years. Caesar quells the mutiny of the 10th Legion. Africa becomes Roman province after Sextus, son of Pompey, is defeated by Caesar.
45 B.C.E. Caesar is victorious over the sons of Pompey in Munda, Spain, and is appointed dictator of Rome for life, the Supreme Commander of the Army. He adopts his nephew Octavian as heir. The Roman Senate is enlarged to 900 members. The Julian Calendar introduced.
44 B.C.E. Mark Antony offers Caesar the royal crown, but Caesar refuses. Caesar is assassinated during the Ides of March by Cassuis and Brutus after senatorial conspiracy. Mark Antony seizes power, the dictatorship is abolished and Caesar’s murderers are forced to leave Rome.
43 B.C.E. Second Triumvirate for five years; Octavian, Mark Antony and Marcus Lepidus rule the Roman Empire. Birth of Ovid. Cicero murdered by order of Antony.
42 B.C.E. Caesar is deified, and a temple is built in the Forum to honor him. The Triumvirate defeats Brutus and Cassius who commit suicide. The Roman Empire is divided between triumvirate.
40 B.C.E. Backed by Parthians, Antigonus, the last Jewish Hasmonean king, rules Judea. His challenger, Herod, goes to Rome to seek help. Antony marries Octavia, sister of Octavian.
39 B.C.E. Roman Senate proclaims Herod king of Judea, backing him with a small army.
37 B.C.E. Herod the Great defeats Antigonus, becomes king of Judea. Antony marries Cleopatra in Egypt while still married to Octavia. Herod marries Mariamme I.
36 B.C.E. Octavian's fleet defeats fleet of Pompey, who dies. The high priest, who is the brother of Mariamme I, is murdered by Herod.
32 B.C.E. Antony divorces Octavia, brother Octavian declares war on Antony and Cleopatra. War between Herod of Judea and the Nabateans.
31 B.C.E. Octavian defeats the combined fleets of Antony and Cleopatra at Actium.
30 B.C.E. Antony and Cleopatra commit suicide. Egypt becomes a Roman province, end of Ptolemaic rule.
29 B.C.E. Herod executes wife Mariamme I.
27 B.C.E. Senate confers supreme power and title "Augustus" to Octavian. Augustus quells revolts in Spain.
23 B.C.E. Herod begins extensive renovation of the Temple in Jerusalem. Augustus abandons annual consulship, but gains other ruling privileges by changing his power base, takes title of "Princeps."
19 B.C.E. Death of the Roman poet Vergil.
16 B.C.E. Herod visits Rome.
15 B.C.E. Roman rule reaches the upper Danube.
12 B.C.E. Herod visits Rome again. Trouble erupts between Judea and Nabatea.
10 B.C.E. Herod finishes 12 years of building the port city of Caesarea, which includes a pagan temple.
8 B.C.E. Death of the Roman poet Horace.
c.7 B.C.E. Herod executes his sons by Mariamme I, Alexander and Aristobulus.
c.6 B.C.E. Birth of Yeshua (Jesus) in Bethlehem of Judea. Judah the Galilean leads rebellion aginst the Roman census of Judea ordered by Quirinius, and is defeated.
4 B.C.E. Herod executes his son Antipater and names Archelaus his successor. Death of Herod the Great. A Jewish rebellion erupts, and is suppressed by Varus, governor of Syria with 2,000 crucified. Augustus appoints three remaining sons of Herod as rulers of the Judean kingdom.
c.1 C.E. Estimated eight million Jews throughout the Mediterranean Basin and Middle East. More than two million live in Judea, with a million each in Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor and Babylonia and throughout the Parthian Empire. Jewish settlements found in Rome, Tarracina, and Puteoli in Italy, with settlements in Tarraco, northern Spain. These Jewish communities support the Temple services in Jerusalem with a yearly half-Shekel tax per Jewish male. Many make pilgrimages to Jerusalem to observe the Jewish feasts commanded in the Torah, the Law of God. World population at this time about 170 million people.
6 C.E. Herod Archaelaus is deposed. A Roman procurator is appointed over Judea and the capital moved to Caesarea. Roman census sparks Zealot movement among the Jews.
9 C.E. Wang-mang is emperor of China. Revolt against Rome of the Germanic tribes between Elbe river and Rhine, Rome accepts the Rhine as border.
10 C.E. One-third of Italy (2 million people) are slaves.
14 C.E. Death of Augustus Caesar, Tiberius becomes Roman emperor.
15 C.E. Pharisaical leader Hillel institutes prosbul (loans which are not affected by the Sabbatical cycle) among the Jewish people, because they refuse to lend to the poor close to sabbatical year when debts are cancelled.
17 C.E. Death of historian Livy.
18 C.E. Caiaphas, is the high priest in Jerusalem. Death of Ovid.
20 C.E. Jewish Sanhedrin of 71 members issues religious policy for all Jews in Roman territory, and also administers secular Jewish matters in Judea.
26 C.E. Pontius Pilate is Roman procurator of Judea.
27 C.E. A Jewish priest, John the Baptist, proclaims imminence of Israel's promised Messianic Kingdom. Israel is warned to repent, be purified and to look for Messiah after him. Many Jews, including Yeshua (Jesus), are baptized. Yeshua begins ministry of proclaiming to the Jewish people the nearness of Israel's Kingdom, and performs miraculous healings.
28 C.E. Herod arrests and executes John the Baptist by beheading.
30 C.E. In Jerusalem during the Jewish Passover feast, Yeshua (Jesus) is betrayed to the Jewish authorities by a close disciple. Jewish authorities deliver Yeshua to Roman procurator Pilate who orders execution by crucifixion, condemned as a revolutionary on charge of being King of the Jews. Fifty days later at the Temple in Jerusalem, on the Jewish feast of Weeks (Pentecost), 12 Jewish Apostles publicly testify that Yeshua is Israel's King, the Messiah (Christos in Greek), is resurrected from the dead, has ascended to Heaven, has poured out the promised Holy Spirit and will return to judge all men.
35 C.E. King Izates II of Adiabene converts to Judaism and has his sons educated in Jerusalem, will aid Judea in revolt against Rome in 67 C.E.
c.35 C.E. Saul, a Pharisee and exceptional rabbinical disciple of R. Gamliel in Jerusalem, and vehement opponent of the belief spreading among the Jews that a crucified and risen Yeshua (Jesus) is Messiah, has dramatic encounter with the resurrected Yeshua during a journey to Damascus to discover and punish Jewish believers. Saul becomes a tireless champion of the faith, later called Paul the Apostle. He treked more than 13,000 miles, suffering much physical abuse in his proclamation to Jews and non-Jews that Yeshua is alive from the dead and is Messiah. He founds and nurtures many congregations of disciples in Asia Minor and southern Europe.
37 C.E. Herod Agrippa is ruler of tetrarchies of Philip and Lysanias. Gaius Claudius Caesar, "Caligula," is Roman emperor. Birth of Josephus, a Jewish priest, later a general and historian.
38 C.E. Anti-Jewish riots erupt in Alexandria, Egypt.
39 C.E. Anti-Jewish riots in Antioch. Herod Antipas is exiled to Gaul on charges of secret alliance with Parthians against Rome.
40 C.E. Emperor Gaius, believing himself divine, orders a statue of himself to be erected in the Temple in Jerusalem. The attempt is thwarted.
c.40 C.E. The Jewish Apostle Peter has a vision to announce the resurrection of Yeshua to Cornelius, a Roman centurion. Cornelius and family believe in Yeshua and receive the Holy Spirit, becoming Christians without converting to Judaism first. Jewish book Wisdom of Solomon written.
41 C.E. Jewish autonomy awarded under Agrippa I, king of Judea. Emperor Gaius, mentally unstable, assassinated, Claudius Drusus Roman emperor.
43 C.E. Romans invade Britain, London founded.
44 C.E. Apostle Yakov (James) put to death, Peter arrested by Herod Agrippa. Death of Agrippa, Judean rule returned to Roman procurators. Messianic pretender, Theudas, executed by Roman procurator of Judea, Fadus.
46 C.E. Roman procurator of Judea, Tiberias Alexander, apostate Jew and nephew of Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria, Egypt, crucifies two sons of Jewish Zealot leader, Judah of Gamala.
c.46 C.E. Paul begins missionary journeys with Bar-Nabas the Levite to proclaim the Gospel and encourage local groups of believers in Yeshua.
c.48 C.E. Jewish Apostolic Council in Jerusalem (Acts 15) determines status and relationship of non-Jewish disciples of Yeshua in the faith. The Council minimizes ritual requirements of Jewish Torah, the Law, for non-Jews, moral laws are firmly upheld.
c.49 C.E. Timothy, whose mother is Jewish, becomes long-time assistant of Paul after Jewish ceremonial circumcision. Claudius expels Jews from Rome who are not citizens (Aquila and Priscilla).
50 C.E. Death of Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria, Egypt. Jewish riot in Rome, thousands killed. Indian Bhagavad-Gita written.
52 C.E. Antonius Felix, Greek freedman, Roman Procurator of Judea.
54 C.E. Claudius murdered, Nero Drusus Roman emperor.
c.55 C.E. Gospel of Mark written.
c.56 C.E. Paul writes epistles 1 and 2 Corinthians and Romans.
57 C.E. Paul visits Jerusalem bringing gifts, worships at Temple, riots erupt when Asian Jews charge that Paul had brought non-Jews into the Temple, taken to Roman barracks.
58 C.E. Paul imprisoned at Caesarea. Roman procurator Felix settles dispute in Caesarea between gentile majority and Jewish minority by sending troops to massacre the Jews. Buddhism introduced into China by emperor Ming-ti.
c.58 C.E. Gospel of Matthew written.
59 C.E. Emperor Nero murders mother.
60 C.E. Paul testifies before Roman procurator of Judea, Festus, appeals to Rome for defense. Paul writes several epistles. High tension in Jerusalem Temple between high priest and common priests who are not allotted their share of tithes.
c.60 C.E. Gospel of Luke written.
62 C.E. Ananus, Jewish priest, convenes Sanhedrin and condemned Yakov (James), half-brother of Yeshua the Messiah, who is then executed. Nero divorces, exiles and murders wife, then marries wife of his friend Otho.
64 C.E. Much of Rome destroyed by fire, Nero orders persecution of Christians. Traditional martyrdom of Paul and Peter in Rome. Gessius Florus, Greek from Asia Minor, Roman Procurator of Judea.
65 C.E. Nero orders philosopher Seneca to commit suicide. Pliny describes the city of Jerusalem as the best-known Eastern city.
66 C.E. Many Judean Jewish cities (but not all) revolt against Roman misgovernment in Judea by Procurator Florus, who plunders Jewish Temple. Cestius Gallus, Roman legate of Syria forced to retreat from Judea.
67 C.E. Roman general Vespasian begins suppression of Jewish revolt, conquers Galilee.
68 C.E. Nero commits suicide after rebellion against him. Galba Roman emperor.
69 C.E. Galba murdered by Otho who becomes emperor. Vitellius defeats Otho and becomes emperor. Vespasian recalled from Judea, defeats and kills Vitellius. Vespasian Roman emperor.
70 C.E. Titus, son of Vespasian, leads Roman and auxiliary forces against Jewish revolt. Tiberius Alexander, nephew of Jewish philosopher Philo, is Chief of Staff of invading Roman forces. Jerusalem and Temple captured and destroyed after five month siege, revolt crushed. Jewish historian Josephus gives indications of more than three million Jews in all of Judea and Galilee, estimated that more than a million died in the siege of Jerusalem, Roman historian Tacitus estimated 600,000 deaths. Tens of thousands sold into slavery and taken to Rome. Special Roman tax levied on all Jews in the Roman Empire since, according to the Romans, Jupiter Capitolinus (god of Rome) had defeated the God of Jerusalem. Rabban Yohannan Ben Zakai, who fled during siege, re-establishes the Jewish Sanhedrin council for national leadership in Yavneh (Jamnia).
73 C.E. Fall of Masada, last stronghold of Jewish resistance against Rome, when 960 defenders choose suicide to Roman slavery.
77 C.E. Roman conquest of Britain.
79 C.E. Eruption of volcano Vesuvius; cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum buried under volcanic ash, 2,000 die, death of Pliny the Elder. Titus Roman emperor. Josephus writes The Jewish War.
80 C.E. Fire in Rome. Colosseum of Rome finished, seats up to 50,000 spectators, primarily for gladiator contests. Gamaliel II takes control from Yohanan Ben Zakai of Jewish leadership in Yavneh, asserts authority inherited from Sanhedrin in Jerusalem before the Roman war.
c.80 C.E. Gospel of John written.
81 C.E. Domitian, brother of Titus, Roman emperor. Roman defense lines constructed along border of German territory. Economic crisis in Italy.
90 C.E. Clement, bishop of Rome, organizes Christian church similar to Greek city government.
c.90 C.E. Jewish writings, 1 and 2 Baruch, 4 Ezra and Apocalypse of Abraham completed.
93 C.E. Josephus writes Antiquities of the Jews.
c.95 C.E. The book of Revelation written.
96 C.E. Domitian assassinated, Nerva Roman emperor.
98 C.E. Trajan Roman emperor.
c.100 C.E. Period of Cerinthian heresy which denied full humanity of Jesus Christ. Jewish leadership in Yavneh introduce prayer against heretics into the Amidah daily Jewish prayer service to force Jewish disciples of Yeshua the Messiah out of the synagogue. Yavneh leadership transforms Passover celebration from a Temple oriented service to family meal, fixed as the Seder. Rufus of Samaria, earliest known Jewish doctor and medical writer.
101 C.E. Rome begins Dacian wars.
103 C.E. Death of Josephus, Jewish historian.
106 C.E. Rome annexes Dacia, establishes the kingdom of the Nabateans in Northern Arabia and province of Arabia.
113 C.E. Death of Pliny the younger.
115 C.E. Jewish revolt throughout southeastern regions of Roman Empire, severely repressed by Trajan. Roman general Quietus erects idol on Temple Mount in Jerusalem.
116 C.E. After wars with the Parthians the Tigris river made eastern boundary of Roman Empire. Two new provinces added, Mesopotamia and Assyria, Roman Empire reaches maximum territorial expansion.
117 C.E. Hadrian, cousin of Trajan, Roman emperor, decrees that the Jewish Temple may not be rebuilt and forbids circumcision of Jews throughout the empire, suppresses continuing Jewish revolt, Jews of Cyprus annihilated.
120 C.E. Death of historian Tacitus, and biographer Plutarch. Aquila, Roman convert to Christianity, becomes proselyte to Judaism, translates Jewish Torah into Greek, used by Jews whereas Christians make use of 300-year-old Septuagint translation.
122 C.E. Hadrian visits Britain, constructs defense wall between Scotland and England.
124 C.E. Pantheon (temple for all gods) in Rome completed.
132 C.E. Incited by Roman plan to reconstruct Jerusalem as colony called Aelia Capitolina, Jews in Judea revolt against Romans, led by Shimeon Bar-Kokhba (supported by the Sanhedrin and proclaimed Messiah by Rabbi Akiva) Jews capture Jerusalem, sacrificial rituals re-instituted, coins struck and independent Jewish state declared. Jews in Israel who believe Yeshua (Jesus) is Messiah are persecuted by followers of Bar-Kokhba since they cannot agree that Bar-Kokhba is Israel's Messiah.
134 C.E. Julius Severus, governor of Britain, sent to crush Jewish rebellion.
135 C.E. Jewish revolt suppressed, death of Shimeon Bar-Kokhba and Rabbi Akiva. Roman historian Cassius estimates that more than half a million Jews died, with those who died from disease and starvation. Sizable Jewish population neverthe-less remained. Jerusalem renamed Aelia Capi-tolina in honor of Hadrian and becomes a pagan cultural center. Judea renamed Syria Palaestina. Jews permitted in Jerusalem only once a year, on the ninth day of Av, to mourn destruction of holy places. Rabbi Akivah executed by Romans for teaching Torah publically after the revolt.
138 C.E. Antoninus Pius, Roman emperor, recognizes Judaism as a legitimate religion. Jewish residents constitute up to a tenth of the population of the Roman Empire. Jewish Sanhedrin located at Usha in the Galilee.
c.140 C.E. Marcion arrives in Rome, Marcionite heresy begins; Denial of any value of Old Testament and much of New Testament except Paul's letters and an edited gospel of Luke, Christ only seemed human.
144 C.E. Marcion excommunicated.
c.150 C.E. Jewish chronology of the world, Seder Olam Rabbah, composed.
155 C.E. Justin Martyr writes First Apology of faith in Christ.
160 C.E. Death of Marcion.
161 C.E. Marcus Aurelius, Roman emperor.
165 C.E. Justin Martyr put to death. Jewish Sanhedrin held in Shefaram in the Galilee.
166 C.E. Bishop of Rome changes celebration of Christian Pascha (Easter) observance from 14 Nisan (Jewish Passover) to the following Sunday. Chinese Emperor Huan-ti receives gifts from Marcus Aurelius. Plague epidemic in Roman Empire.
170 C.E. Irenaus, bishop of Lyons, France, makes references to Scripture from a "Western" type text. Tatian compiles Diatessaron harmony of the four Gospels into a single narrative.
175 C.E. Galen, Greek physician, distinguishes between Greek thought in which the gods do not interfere with the mechanical order of the universe, and Jewish thought in which God may miraculously intervene.
180 C.E. Commodus, Roman emperor. Irenaeus writes of episcopal oversight of the Church. North African Christians martyred by Romans at Scillium. Jewish Sibylline Oracles predicts the fall of Rome. Jewish Sanhedrin meets in Beth Shearim.
190 C.E. Victor I, bishop of Rome, excommunicates Eastern churches that continued to observe 14 Nisan (Jewish Passover) for Christian celebration of Pascha (Easter).
193 C.E. Pertinax selected as emperor but murdered. Didius Julian reigns two months. Septimus Severus seizes Rome, executes Didius Julian and rules as emperor.
195 C.E. Rabbi Judah, Ha Nasi, the Prince, exercises powers of taxation of Jews for the Sanhedrin, imposes death sentences which Rome tolerates.
c.197 C.E. Tertullian of Carthage writes Apology of faith in Jesus Christ.
200 C.E. Death of Irenaeus, Latin church father from Lyons, France. Jewish writing, Shi’ur Qomah, to become important element of Jewish mysticism in the Kabbalah, says certain chosen people may behold God in enormous human form. Aramaic translation of Torah is written down in Palestine, called Targum Onkelos.
210 C.E. Jewish oral Code of Law, the Mishnah, completed by students of Rabbi Judah Ha Nasi, the Prince, in Palestine. Jewish Sanhedrin meets in Sepphoris in Galilee.
211 C.E. Caracalla, eldest son of Severus, Roman emperor.
212 C.E. Caracalla murders brother, extends rights of citizenship to nearly all freemen in the empire, including free Jews.
217 C.E. Against the opposition of Tertullian and Origen, Clixtus I proclaims the exceptional position of the bishop of Rome thus creating the concept of the papacy. Macrinus, Roman emperor. Goths invade Asia Minor from the Balkans.
218 C.E. Elagabalus, Roman emperor.
220 C.E. Rule of Three Kingdoms in China.
222 C.E. Severus Alexander, Roman emperor under influence of mother who was regent.
c.225 C.E. Death of Tertullian, Latin church father.
227 C.E. Ardashir founds Sassanid Persian Empire after revolt against Parthians.
230 C.E. The Jewish Tosefta, a companion volume to the Mishnah, completed. First known emperor of Japan, Sujin.
235 C.E. Roman Army under Julius Verus Maximus mutinies, kills Severus Alexander, Maximinus, Roman emperor, anarchy in Empire till about 285.
238 C.E. Gordian III, Roman emperor.
240 C.E. Persian teacher, Mani, founds religion which includes elements of Christianity, Buddhism, and Zoroastrianism, threatens Persian and Roman state religions. Origen, Greek church father from Alexandria, Egypt, completes Hebrew-Greek Hexapla, six versions of Scriptures in one volume. Jewish Sanhedrin held in Tiberias, Galilee.
244 C.E. Philip the Arabian, Roman emperor.
248 C.E. Rome celebrates 1,000 years since founding.
249 C.E. Decius, Roman emperor.
250 C.E. General Christian persecution by Rome, compulsory emperor worship, many nominal Christians renounce faith, Jews exempted from emperor worship. Plotinus developes Greek religious ideas, to be called Neoplatonism.
251 C.E. Decius dies in battle with Goths, Gallus, Roman emperor.
253 C.E. Valerian, and son Gallienus, co-emperors of Rome.
c.254 C.E. Death of Origen, Greek church father from Alexandria, Egypt.
c.258 C.E. Death of Cyprian, Latin church father from Carthage.
259 C.E. Valerian captured in battle against Persians, Gallienus Roman emperor.
265 C.E. China reunited.
268 C.E. Claudius II, Roman emperor. Goths sack Athens, Corinth and Sparta.
270 C.E. Aurelianus, Roman emperor, restores effective control of empire. Jewish Sanhedrin located at Tiberius, Galilee, headed by Rabbi Yohanan ben Nappaha.
271 C.E. Compass invented in China.
275 C.E. Tacitus, Roman emperor.
276 C.E. Tacitus killed by his soldiers. Probus, Roman emperor.
282 C.E. Probus killed by his soldiers who oppose doing peaceful work. Carus, Roman emperor.
283 C.E. Carus killed in battle by his soldiers.
285 C.E. Diocletian, Roman emperor. Pappus of Alexandria writes of five machines, cogwheel, lever, pully, screw, and wedge.
286 C.E. Roman Empire divided between Diocletian in the East and Maximian in the West.
294 C.E. Compilation of Roman Law in Codex Gregorianus.
296 C.E. Roman Bishop Marcellinus, will offer pagan sacrifices for Diocletian.
c.300 C.E. Austere Christian monastic movement begins especially in Syria and Egypt, adherents individually leave civilization for solitude in desolate areas. Jewish Targum Jonathan, Aramaic translation of Hebrew Prophets, completed. Peshitta, eastern-Aramaic translation of Bible completed by Christians in Edessa, Syria.
c.302 C.E. Christian council regulates relationship between Jews and Christians in Illiberis, southern Spain.
303 C.E. General persecution of Christians in Roman Empire.
305 C.E. Diocletian and Maximian step down from rule. Continuous rivalries and civil wars between successive "Augusti" and "Caesars" who ruled the empire.
308 C.E. Maxentius, son of Maximian, Roman emperor in West.
312 C.E. Constantine defeats and kills Maxentius at battle of Milvian bridge, becomes emperor of the West. Constantine becomes favorably disposed to Christianity. Lucian founds exegetical school of Antioch, revises the Septuagint, martyred.
313 C.E. Edict of Milan; Toleration of religions including Christianity in Roman Empire, the number of nominal Christians increases enormously.
315 C.E. Constantine issues series of imperial decrees against Judaism.
c.319 C.E. Arius begins rapid and extensive propagation of Arian heresy in the Roman Empire and among Germanic tribes, teaching the Son of God was created long ago but is not eternal Deity.
320 C.E. Chandragupta I founds Gupta dynasty in India.
321 C.E. Constantine decrees SUN-day as official Roman-Christian day of rest.
324 C.E. Constantine defeats Licinius, Eastern emperor, to become sole emperor of the Roman Empire.
325 C.E. Christian Council of Nicea called by Constantine to solve doctrinal disputes, especially the Arian heresy. Arian teaching condemned, the Son affirmed eternal, equal to the Father as expounded by Athanasius. The bishops of Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria and Rome were determined to be on a level of spiritual equality.
330 C.E. Emperor Constantine selects Greek city of Byzantium as new capital for Roman Empire, renamed Constantinople.
337 C.E. Constantine baptized on deathbed, his son, Constantius II emperor. Imperial decree binds Arian heresy on entire Church in the Roman Empire. Constantius expands anti-Jewish laws, labels Jews, "pernicious sect."
c.340 C.E. Death of Christian historian, Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea. Birth of church fathers Ambrose and Jerome.
341 C.E. Antioch in Syria regulates relationship between Christians and Jews.
c.350 C.E. Synagogue destroyed in Tipasa, North Africa. Synagogue destroyed and forced baptism of Jewish residents of Tortona, northern Italy.
351 C.E. Jewish revolt in Palestine, eastern Roman governor, Gallus, suppresses rebellion. Constantius reunites Roman Empire.
c.354 C.E. Birth of Augustine.
358 C.E. Jewish calendar fixed on basis of astronomical calculations, celebration of new moons and holy days no longer dependent on announcements by the Sanhedrin.
361 C.E. Julian "the Apostate" Roman emperor, reintroduces paganism as state religion in place of Christianity.
363 C.E. Julian proposes to rebuild Temple in Jerusalem for the Jewish people, thwarted by earthquake, killed by Christian Arab under his command during battle against Persians, Jovanius, emperor.
364 C.E. Valentine, emperor of Rome, Valens eastern emperor.
c.370 C.E. Huns invade Europe from Asia.
c.373 C.E. Death of Athanasius.
c.375 C.E. Damasus I asserts the teaching authority of Roman bishop over all Christians, including bishops, by interpretation of Petrine Legacy (Matthew 16:18), wrote of the Apostolic Chair, transformation of the Bishop of Rome into the Pope (Papa). Gratian, western Roman emperor.
376 C.E. Germanic Visigoths settled in Roman borders.
378 C.E. Emperor Valens defeated, killed by Visigoths.
379 C.E. Theodosius, eastern Roman emperor.
c.380 C.E. Death of Wulfila, German who translated Bible to Gothic, converted Germans to Arianism.
380 C.E. Eastern Roman Empire prohibits Arian heresy, Athanasianism (the Son eternal) state religion.
381 C.E. Second Council of Constantinople confirms Nicene Creed condemns Arianism, confirms Athanasianism.
383 C.E. Magnus Maximus, western Roman emperor. Roman Legions begin to withdraw from Britain.
387 C.E. John Chrysostom, in Antioch, Syria, preaches virulent sermons against the Jewish people.
388 C.E. Theodosius captures, executes Magnus Maximus. Synagogue destroyed in Callinicum by Christian mob, Theodosius orders Christian bishop to rebuild the synagogue and punish the perpetrators.
391 C.E. Theodosius outlaws paganism, Christianity official religion, acknowledges Bishop of Rome as guardian of the true faith and supreme authority.
392 C.E. Eugenius appointed emperor of the Western Empire, reintroduces pagan cults.
394 C.E. Theodosius the Great, sole emperor. Roman Empire reunited.
395 C.E. Empire redivided permanently; Honorius, western emperor, Arcadius, eastern emperor. Stilicho drives Visigoths out of Greece.
397 C.E. Synagogue destroyed in Illyricum. Death of Ambrose, Bishop of Milan.
400 C.E. King of Himyar converts to Judaism.
c.400 C.E. Jerome translates Hebrew and Greek Scriptures into Latin, the Vulgate, standard Christian Bible for Catholic Christianity.
401 C.E. Bishop Innocent I, Pope of Rome, claims universal rule over Church in the Roman empire. Visigoths invade Italy.
404 C.E. Capital of western Roman Empire moved from Rome to Ravenna.
406 C.E. Vandals and other barbarians invade Gaul.
c.407 C.E. Death of John Chrysostom, Greek church father.
407 C.E. Final withdrawal of Roman troops from Britain, romanized inhabitants abandoned.
410 C.E. Visigoths led by Alaric sack Rome.
c.410 C.E. Synagogue confiscated in Edessa, Syria. Alchemy beginning to be practised.
412 C.E. Synagogue destroyed in Illyricum. Visigoths occupy southern Gaul.
415 C.E. Visigoths invade Spain, force Vandals out.
417 C.E. Imperial decree degrades civil status of Jewish subjects of Roman Empire.
418 C.E. Synagogue destroyed, forced baptism of Jewish residents of island of Minorca, by direction of Severus, bishop of Majorca. Franks capture Gaul.
c.419 C.E. Barsauma, Christian monk, leads rampage in Palestine, several synagogues destroyed.
420 C.E. End of Roman government in Britain. Death of Jerome, translator of Scriptures into Latin.
423 C.E. Civil status of Jewish subjects of the Roman Empire degraded by Theodosius. Synagogue confiscated in Antioch.
425 C.E. Valentinian III western emperor. Britain raided by Angles, Saxons and others.
426 C.E. Bishop Augustine completes City of God.
429 C.E. Vandals invade northern Africa. Theodosius orders Sanhedrin to turn over money collected for the Jewish Patriarch, effectively abolishing patriarchate, this in accordance with the Church’s desire to eliminate Davidic patriarch of Jewish people, which appeared to contradict Christian claims.
430 C.E. Death of Augustine, in Hippo, North Africa. Non-Jewish Christian population of Palestine increases greatly, accompanied by conflict with Jewish residents.
431 C.E. Christian Council of Ephesus condemns Nestorianism, decrees Mary, Mother of God.
432 C.E. Patrick, Christian missionary to Ireland.
433 C.E. Attila, leader of Huns, invades Europe.
438 C.E. Imperial decree forbids Jewish citizens from holding public office in the Roman Empire.
439 C.E. Vandals capture Carthage, last Roman stronghold in North Africa. Compilation of Roman Law, Codex Theodosianus.
440 C.E. Bishop of Rome Leo I, the Great, becomes first authentic Roman Pope.
442 C.E. Synagogue confiscated in Constantinople.
445 C.E. Edict of emperor Valentinian III gives Roman bishop (Pope) primacy over the Western Empire, special power as the "vicar of Christ;" Highest judgeship (Matthew 16:18), highest administration (John 21:25- 27), and highest teaching authority (Luke 22:32), all based on the indirect tradition that the Apostle Peter was especially involved in the founding and leadership of the Roman church and on the belief of apostolic succession.
c.450 C.E. False messiah Moses of Crete.
451 C.E. Christian Council of Chalcedon recognized Christ, "in two natures (divine-human), without confusion, without change, without division, without separation." Also determined that all bishops from either division of the empire, West or East, had equal status. Bishop Leo I, Roman Pope, protests the finding of equality of bishops. Attila the Hun defeated by Franks, Alemani, and Romans at Chalons.
452 C.E. Attila invades Italy.
453 C.E. Death of Atila, empire of Huns breaks up.
455 C.E. Rome sacked by Vandals, looted but not destroyed (vandalized).
456 C.E. Sassanid Persian ruler, Yazdigan, forbids Jewish observance of the Sabbath.
458 C.E. Persian ruler, Firuz, forbids Jewish worship.
465 C.E. Venetia in Gaul regulates relations between Christians and Jews. White Huns rule northern India.
468 C.E. Firuz of Persia rampages against Jewish residents, synagogues and academies destroyed.
471 C.E. Theodoric the Great, king of Ostrogoths.
475 C.E. Romulus Augustulus, last emperor of western Roman Empire. Jewish writings Genesis Rabbah and Leviticus Rabbah composed in Palestine.
476 C.E. German Odoacer deposes Romulus Augustulus, ends western Roman Empire, establishes Germanic kingdom in Italy.
477 C.E. Huneric, king of Vandals of North Africa.
484 C.E. Gunthamund, king of Vandals of North Africa.
485 C.E. Samaritan revolt against Roman rule in Palestine.
486 C.E. Clovis, king of Franks, defeats Roman ruler of northern Gaul, annexes the territory.
489 C.E. Synagogue destroyed in Daphne, Syria.
493 C.E. Theodoric the Great founds Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy.
495 C.E. Mar Zutra, Jewish Exilarch of Persian Jews, forms autonomous Jewish kingdom, levies taxes and forms defense army.
c.495 C.E. Destruction of synagogue and forced baptism of Jewish residents of Ravenna, Italy.
496 C.E. Thrasamund, king of Vandals of North Africa. Clovis and the Franks convert to Catholic Christianity, most other German tribes hold to Arian heresy.
498 C.E. Lawrentian schism in Catholic Church with anti-pope Lawrence.
c.498 C.E. Bishop Symmachus, Roman Pope, determined, "The Pope cannot be judged by any man." Nestorians settle in Nisibis, Persia.
500 C.E. Clovis defeats Burgundians.
c.500 C.E. Several synagogues confiscated in Asia Minor. Completion of Babylonian Talmud, compilation of Jewish law, scholarship, tradition and legend. Incense introduced into Christian worship services.
502 C.E. Sassanid ruler, Kovad, conquers Jewish kingdom, executes Mar Zutra, closes synagogues and Jewish schools. Syrian poet, Narsai of Mealletha, leads Nestorians in Nisibis.
503 C.E. War between Roman Empire and Sassanid Persia.
506 C.E. Jews in Spain forbidden from holding public office, building new synagogues, or owning Christian slaves, by Visigoth rulers.
507 C.E. Synagogue in Daphne, Syria destroyed again. Franks conquer Visigoths in southern Gaul, annex part of territory.
511 C.E. Frankish Empire divided among four sons at death of Clovis.
517 C.E. King of Himyar converts to Judaism, one of several Himyarite kings to do so.
518 C.E. Justin I, emperor of Roman Empire.
519 C.E. Christians burn synagogues of Ravenna, Italy, Theodoric forces Christians to pay for rebuilding.
523 C.E. Hilderic, King of Vandals of North Africa.
524 C.E. War between Roman Empire and Sassanid Persia. Death of Roman Christian philosopher Boethius.
525 C.E. Dionysius Exigus fixes Christian calendar (A.D.) and the birth of Jesus Christ on 23 December, 1 C.E.
526 C.E. Earthquake in Antioch of Syria claims 250,000 lives.
527 C.E. Justinian, Roman Emperor.
529 C.E. Status of Jewish subjects of Roman Empire degraded. Athens 1,000 year old school of philosophy closed by Emperor Justinian, declared pagan. Samaritans revolt in Palestine.
c.529 C.E. Monastery of Monte Cassino by Benedict of Nursia, establishes form for western monasti-cism, rejects extreme asceticism, members dedicated to helping the poor, hospitality, and schools, scholastic monks preserved much classical literature.
530 C.E. Gelimer, King of Vandals of North Africa. Christian Abyssinia invades Arabia, advances to Mecca.
533 C.E. "Eternal Peace" agreement between Roman Empire and Sassanid Persia (broken in seven years).
534 C.E. Justinian codifies all Roman law. Roman general, Belisarius, conquers Vandal Kingdom of North Africa. Franks conquer Burgundy.
535 C.E. Synagogues in North Africa confiscated. Roman forces invade Ostrogothic Italy.
c.535 C.E. Forced baptism of Jews of Boreum, Libya.
537 C.E. Justinian decrees that Jewish residents of Roman Empire must maintain local government, but may not hold offices in it. St. Sophia church structure in Constantinople finished.
540 C.E. War between Roman Empire and Persia.
542 C.E. Beginning of fifty year plague epidemic in Roman Empire and Europe, half of population dies, caused by rats from Egypt and Syria.
550 C.E. Christianity introduced in Wales, crucifix becomes Christian icon.
552 C.E. Roman Emperor Justinian sends Christian missionaries to China and Ceylon to get silkworm, establishes Byzantine silk monopoly. Buddhism introduced in Japan by Emperor Shotoko Taishi.
553 C.E. Justinian judges Jewish dispute, forbids the reading of the Mishnah in the synagogue, the Torah to be read in Greek.
554 C.E. Romans conquer southeastern Spain.
555 C.E. Justinian calls ecumenical council, 2nd Council of Constantinople.
558 C.E. Forced baptism of Jewish residents of Uzes, southern France.
560 C.E. Samaritans and Jewish residents of Palestine ally against Roman oppression.
561 C.E. Frankish Empire divided into Neustria and Austrasia.
563 C.E. Christianity introduced to Picts.
565 C.E. Justin II, Roman emperor.
568 C.E. Lombards conquer northern Italy.
569 C.E. Synagogue confiscated in Constantinople.
570 C.E. Yemeni-Ethiopian force attacks Mecca, later tradition links Muhammad's birth (after father's death) to this battle, the "Year of the Elephant."
572 C.E. Persians control Arabia. War between Romans and Persia, to 628.
575 C.E. Bishop of Rome, Benedict I, authorized for service by Emperor Justin II.
576 C.E. Synagogue destroyed and forced baptism of Jewish residents of Clermont, France.
578 C.E. Tiberius II, Roman Emperor.
579 C.E. Pelagius selected as Bishop of Rome.
581 C.E. Wen-ti, emperor of China.
582 C.E. Maurice, emperor of the Roman Empire. Forced baptism of Jewish residents of Paris.
584 C.E. Anglo-Saxon kingdom founded in England.
585 C.E. Synagogue destroyed and forced baptism of Jewish residents of Tours, France.
587 C.E. Spanish Visigoths convert to Catholic Christianity.
589 C.E. Lombards of Italy converted to Catholic Christianity. Persia defeats invasion of Turks, Khazars and Arabs. Wen-ti reunites China.
590 C.E. Forced baptism of Jewish residents of Arles and Marseille. Outbreak of the plague in Rome, Pelagius, Bishop of Rome, dies from the plague, Gregory the Great becomes Roman Pope, uses papal power to become secular ruler of Rome, rejects forced baptism of Jews, considers them defenseless foreigners.
c.590 C.E. Synagogue destroyed in Orleans, France.
594 C.E. Death of Frankish historian Gregory. End of European plague outbreaks which began in 542.
595 C.E. First authenticated record of 0-9 (base ten) decimal system of counting appears in India.
597 C.E. Kingdom of Kent converted to Christianity under leadership of Augustine of Canterbury.
600 C.E. Pope Gregory "strives" to convert Jews to Christianity. Antara ibn Shaddad, one of seven great Islamic poets.
c.600 C.E. Forced baptism of Jewish residents of Melitene, Asia Minor.
602 C.E. Phocas kills Maurice, becomes Roman emperor.
605 C.E. Grand Canal built in China.
606 C.E. Harsha, emperor of northern India. Standard examinations for public office in China.
608 C.E. The Kaaba, the Arab pagan shrine at Mecca, rebuilt by Roman carpenter.
609 C.E. Roman pagan temple, the Pantheon, renamed, Church of Santa Maria Rotonda.
610 C.E. During meditation in cave near Mecca Muhammad has alarming experience of angelic visitation, Christian cousin of his wife Khadijah tells Muhammad he is a prophet like Moses and Jesus, over a period of twenty-three years he receives 114 different revelations to be compiled in the Koran. Muhammad proclaims Islam (submission to Allah) initially to relatives and friends, repudiates Arab paganism, chides Jews for not accepting Jesus as Messiah, censures Christians for believing Christ is the Son of God, Jews and Christians considered people of the Book (bible). Heraclius kills Phocas, becomes emperor of Roman Empire.
c.610 C.E. Greek made the imperial language of the Byzantine Roman Empire.
613 C.E. Baptism of Jews decreed in Spain.
614 C.E. Persians capture Jerusalem and take remnants of the "True Cross," Jewish rule restored in Jerusalem with sacrificial worship until 617, under leadership of Nehemiah ben Hushiel Jews oust Christians from churches in Jerusalem. Clothar II unites Frankish kingdom.
615 C.E. Earliest record of Muhammad’s teachings.
616 C.E. Persians conquer Egypt.
617 C.E. Rapprochement between Christians and Persians, Christians regain control of Jerusalem, Nehemiah ben Hushiel killed.
618 C.E. T'ang dynasty of China.
619 C.E. Muhammad has "Night Journey" vision, flying from Mecca to Jerusalem on a winged animal. Many Arab and Jewish tribal leaders of Yathrib (later called Medina) converted to Islam. Pope Boniface V authorized by Heraclius. Suan-Ching, ten classics, textbooks used for Chinese exams.
620 C.E. Vikings invade Ireland.
622 C.E. The Hegira - Muhammad flees Mecca to Medina because of growing resistance of pagan Arab tribes, marks the start of the Muslim calendar. Muhammad consolidates Muslim power in Medina, marries Ayesha, age nine, favorite of at least a dozen wives. Byzantine Roman emperor Heraclius retakes Judea from Sassanid Persians, marches as far as Ecbatana. Christian Monothelite controversy begins.
623 C.E. Islamic fast of Ramadan instituted, Mecca now revealed as focus of Muslim prayer in place of Jerusalem, local Jewish tribe forced to move north from Medina.
624 C.E. Muslims force a second Jewish tribe from Medina, outnumbered Muslim forces defeat Arab army from Mecca at oasis of Badr.
625 C.E. Persians defeated by Romans in attack on Constantinople. Paulinus of Rome goes to Northunbria to convert it to Christianity. Muhammad begins dictation of Koran to his scribe. Indian mathematician, Brahmagupta, teaches at Ujjain.
626 C.E. Heraclius, Roman emperor, drives Persians from Egypt. King Edwin of Northumbria founds Edinburgh, permits Christianization of country.
627 C.E. 600 to 900 men of the Jewish Qurayza tribe are executed by beheading in Muslim controlled Medina, the women and children become slaves. Heraclius defeats Sassanid Persians at Nineveh, discovers Indian sugar cane. T'ai Tsung, emperor of China.
628 C.E. Heraclius wins back "True Cross" from Persians, decrees that Jewish residents of Roman Empire must convert to Christianity.
629 C.E. Heraclius goes to Jerusalem, restores holy relics, initially agrees to pardon Jewish opponents who sided with Persia, pressured by Christian officials to break oath, Jewish residents of Jerusalem expelled.
630 C.E. Muhammad, with 10,000 Islamic warriors, returns and captures Mecca without resistance, first performance of the Islamic Hajj, the prescribed worship of Allah in Mecca by all Muslims who are able, paganism at Mecca banned, Islam extended into virtually all of Arabian Peninsula, Muhammad has letters sent to all rulers of the world explaining Islam. Islamic forays into Syria.
632 C.E. Death of Muhammad, Abu Bakr first Caliph (successor), succeeds in maintaining Arab tribal alliances made with Muhammad.
633 C.E. Arab Muslim incursion into Iraq. Baptism of Jews decreed in Frankish kingdom. Christian Council of Toledo, Spain, rejects forced conversion of Jews, nevertheless, all Jewish residents converted by force must remain Christians and children raised as Christians.
634 C.E. Omar I, Caliph, begins Jihad (Islamic Holy War) against Sassanid Persians, suffers defeat at "Battle of the Bridge." Arab force appears in Damascus, loots city and withdraws. Byzantine force approaching Jerusalem defeated by Arab Muslims in battle of Ajnadain. Arab Muslims of empire are masters over non-Arab tax-paying subjects, maintain contemptuous attitude toward Muslims of non-Arab origins. Houses bought and razed around the Kaaba in Mecca.
636 C.E. Arab Muslims crushingly defeat Byzantine Romans at Yarmuk river, south and east of the Sea of Galilee, control Syria and the Holy Land except for Byzantine fortified cities of Jerusalem and Caesarea.
637 C.E. Omar visits Syria and begins to develop governmental policies. Smaller force of Arab Muslims defeat 20,000 Persians at battle of Qadisiya, later capture Persian capital Ctesiphon and occupy all of Iraq.
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